REFERENCES
1. Paul S, Kantarjian H, Jabbour EJ. Adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Mayo Clin Proc 2016;91:1645-66.
2. Hunger SP, Mullighan CG. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. N Engl J Med 2015;373:1541-52.
3. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. SEER Cancer Statistics Review 1975-2017. Available from: https://seer.-cancer.gov/csr/1975_2017/. [Last accessed on 15 Jun 2021].
5. Dores GM, Devesa SS, Curtis RE, Linet MS, Morton LM. Acute leukemia incidence and patient survival among children and adults in the United States, 2001-2007. Blood 2012;119:34-43.
6. Ward E, DeSantis C, Robbins A, Kohler B, Jemal A. Childhood and adolescent cancer statistics, 2014. CA Cancer J Clin 2014;64:83-103.
7. Williams LA, Yang JJ, Hirsch BA, Marcotte EL, Spector LG. Is there etiologic heterogeneity between subtypes of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia? Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2019;28:846-56.
9. Preston DL, Kusumi S, Tomonaga M, et al. Cancer incidence in atomic bomb survivors. Part III: leukemia, lymphoma and multiple myeloma, 1950-1987. Radiat Res 1994;137:S68-97.
11. Bartley K, Metayer C, Selvin S, Ducore J, Buffler P. Diagnostic X-rays and risk of childhood leukaemia. Int J Epidemiol 2010;39:1628-37.
12. Linet MS, Kim KP, Rajaraman P. Children's exposure to diagnostic medical radiation and cancer risk: epidemiologic and dosimetric considerations. Pediatr Radiol 2009;39 Suppl 1:S4-26.
13. Curtin K, Smith KR, Fraser A, Pimentel R, Kohlmann W, Schiffman JD. Familial risk of childhood cancer and tumors in the Li-Fraumeni spectrum in the Utah Population Database: implications for genetic evaluation in pediatric practice. Int J Cancer 2013;133:2444-53.
14. Klco JM, Mullighan CG. Advances in germline predisposition to acute leukaemias and myeloid neoplasms. Nat Rev Cancer 2021;21:122-37.
15. Treviño LR, Yang W, French D, et al. Germline genomic variants associated with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2009;41:1001-5.
16. Papaemmanuil E, Hosking FJ, Vijayakrishnan J, et al. Loci on 7p12.2, 10q21.2 and 14q11.2 are associated with risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2009;41:1006-10.
17. Sherborne AL, Hosking FJ, Prasad RB, et al. Variation in CDKN2A at 9p21.3 influences childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia risk. Nat Genet 2010;42:492-4.
18. Ellinghaus E, Stanulla M, Richter G, et al. Identification of germline susceptibility loci in ETV6-RUNX1-rearranged childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2012;26:902-9.
19. Xu H, Yang W, Perez-Andreu V, et al. Novel susceptibility variants at 10p12.31-12.2 for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in ethnically diverse populations. J Natl Cancer Inst 2013;105:733-42.
20. Migliorini G, Fiege B, Hosking FJ, et al. Variation at 10p12.2 and 10p14 influences risk of childhood B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia and phenotype. Blood 2013;122:3298-307.
21. Perez-Andreu V, Roberts KG, Harvey RC, et al. Inherited GATA3 variants are associated with Ph-like childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and risk of relapse. Nat Genet 2013;45:1494-8.
22. Walsh KM, de Smith AJ, Hansen HM, et al. A heritable missense polymorphism in CDKN2A confers strong risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and is preferentially selected during clonal evolution. Cancer Res 2015;75:4884-94.
23. Hungate EA, Vora SR, Gamazon ER, et al. A variant at 9p21.3 functionally implicates CDKN2B in paediatric B-cell precursor acute lymphoblastic leukaemia aetiology. Nat Commun 2016;7:10635.
24. Vijayakrishnan J, Kumar R, Henrion MY, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies risk loci for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia at 10q26.13 and 12q23.1. Leukemia 2017;31:573-9.
25. Clay-Gilmour AI, Hahn T, Preus LM, et al. Genetic association with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in allogeneic transplant patients differs by age and sex. Blood Adv 2017;1:1717-28.
26. Wiemels JL, Walsh KM, de Smith AJ, et al. GWAS in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia reveals novel genetic associations at chromosomes 17q12 and 8q24.21. Nat Commun 2018;9:286.
27. Vijayakrishnan J, Studd J, Broderick P, et al. PRACTICAL Consortium. Genome-wide association study identifies susceptibility loci for B-cell childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Commun 2018;9:1340.
28. de Smith AJ, Walsh KM, Francis SS, et al. BMI1 enhancer polymorphism underlies chromosome 10p12.31 association with childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Int J Cancer 2018;143:2647-58.
29. Qian M, Xu H, Perez-Andreu V, et al. Novel susceptibility variants at the ERG locus for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Hispanics. Blood 2019;133:724-9.
30. Qian M, Zhao X, Devidas M, et al. Genome-wide association study of susceptibility loci for T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. J Natl Cancer Inst 2019;111:1350-7.
31. de Smith AJ, Walsh KM, Morimoto LM, et al. Heritable variation at the chromosome 21 gene ERG is associated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia risk in children with and without Down syndrome. Leukemia 2019;33:2746-51.
32. Vijayakrishnan J, Qian M, Studd JB, et al. Identification of four novel associations for B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia risk. Nat Commun 2019;10:5348.
33. Shah S, Schrader KA, Waanders E, et al. A recurrent germline PAX5 mutation confers susceptibility to pre-B cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2013;45:1226-31.
34. Gu Z, Churchman ML, Roberts KG, et al. PAX5-driven subtypes of B-progenitor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2019;51:296-307.
35. Noetzli L, Lo RW, Lee-Sherick AB, et al. Germline mutations in ETV6 are associated with thrombocytopenia, red cell macrocytosis and predisposition to lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2015;47:535-8.
36. Zhang MY, Churpek JE, Keel SB, et al. Germline ETV6 mutations in familial thrombocytopenia and hematologic malignancy. Nat Genet 2015;47:180-5.
37. Moriyama T, Metzger ML, Wu G, et al. Germline genetic variation in ETV6 and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a systematic genetic study. Lancet Oncol 2015;16:1659-66.
38. Melazzini F, Palombo F, Balduini A, et al. Clinical and pathogenic features of ETV6-related thrombocytopenia with predisposition to acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Haematologica 2016;101:1333-42.
39. Nishii R, Baskin-Doerfler R, Yang W, et al. Molecular basis of ETV6-mediated predisposition to childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2021;137:364-73.
40. Kuehn HS, Boisson B, Cunningham-Rundles C, et al. Loss of B cells in patients with heterozygous mutations in IKAROS. N Engl J Med 2016;374:1032-43.
41. Yoshida N, Sakaguchi H, Muramatsu H, et al. Germline IKAROS mutation associated with primary immunodeficiency that progressed to T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2017;31:1221-3.
42. Churchman ML, Qian M, Te Kronnie G, et al. Germline genetic IKZF1 variation and predisposition to childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Cell 2018;33:937-48.e8.
43. Holmfeldt L, Wei L, Diaz-Flores E, et al. The genomic landscape of hypodiploid acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2013;45:242-52.
44. Qian M, Cao X, Devidas M, et al. TP53 germline variations influence the predisposition and prognosis of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. J Clin Oncol 2018;36:591-9.
45. Greaves M. A causal mechanism for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Nat Rev Cancer 2018;18:471-84.
46. Whitehead TP, Metayer C, Wiemels JL, Singer AW, Miller MD. Childhood leukemia and primary prevention. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2016;46:317-52.
47. Liu R, Zhang L, McHale CM, Hammond SK. Paternal smoking and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Oncol 2011;2011:854584.
48. Metayer C, Zhang L, Wiemels JL, et al. Tobacco smoke exposure and the risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic and myeloid leukemias by cytogenetic subtype. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2013;22:1600-11.
49. de Smith AJ, Kaur M, Gonseth S, et al. Correlates of prenatal and early-life tobacco smoke exposure and frequency of common gene deletions in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Res 2017;77:1674-83.
50. Bailey HD, Infante-Rivard C, Metayer C, et al. Home pesticide exposures and risk of childhood leukemia: findings from the childhood leukemia international consortium. Int J Cancer 2015;137:2644-63.
51. Hyland C, Gunier RB, Metayer C, Bates MN, Wesseling C, Mora AM. Maternal residential pesticide use and risk of childhood leukemia in Costa Rica. Int J Cancer 2018;143:1295-304.
52. Colt JS, Blair A. Parental occupational exposures and risk of childhood cancer. Environ Health Perspect 1998;106 Suppl 3:909-25.
53. Bailey HD, Metayer C, Milne E, et al. Home paint exposures and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: findings from the Childhood Leukemia International Consortium. Cancer Causes Control 2015;26:1257-70.
54. Ward MH, Colt JS, Deziel NC, et al. Residential levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia in California. Environ Health Perspect 2014;122:1110-6.
55. Boothe VL, Boehmer TK, Wendel AM, Yip FY. Residential traffic exposure and childhood leukemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Prev Med 2014;46:413-22.
56. Whitehead TP, Ward MH, Colt JS, et al. Dust metal loadings and the risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2015;25:593-8.
57. Karczewski KJ, Francioli LC, Tiao G, et al. Genome Aggregation Database Consortium. The mutational constraint spectrum quantified from variation in 141,456 humans. Nature 2020;581:434-43.
58. Wang K, Li M, Hakonarson H. ANNOVAR: functional annotation of genetic variants from high-throughput sequencing data. Nucleic Acids Res 2010;38:e164.
59. Borrell LN, Elhawary JR, Fuentes-Afflick E, et al. Race and genetic ancestry in medicine-A time for reckoning with racism. N Engl J Med 2021;384:474-80.
60. Borrell LN, Elhawary JR, Fuentes-Afflick E, et al. Race and genetic ancestry in medicine - a time for reckoning with racism. N Engl J Med 2021;384:474-80.
61. Alvidrez J, Castille D, Laude-Sharp M, Rosario A, Tabor D. The national institute on minority health and health disparities research framework. Am J Public Health 2019;109:S16-20.
62. Barrington-Trimis JL, Cockburn M, Metayer C, Gauderman WJ, Wiemels J, McKean-Cowdin R. Rising rates of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Hispanic children: trends in incidence from 1992 to 2011. Blood 2015;125:3033-4.
63. Giddings BM, Whitehead TP, Metayer C, Miller MD. Childhood leukemia incidence in California: high and rising in the Hispanic population. Cancer 2016;122:2867-75.
64. Barrington-Trimis JL, Cockburn M, Metayer C, Gauderman WJ, Wiemels J, McKean-Cowdin R. Trends in childhood leukemia incidence over two decades from 1992 to 2013. Int J Cancer 2017;140:1000-8.
65. Siegel DA, Henley SJ, Li J, Pollack LA, Van Dyne EA, White A. Rates and trends of pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia - United States, 2001-2014. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2017;66:950-4.
66. Feng Q, de Smith AJ, Vergara-Lluri M, et al. Trends in acute lymphoblastic leukemia incidence in the United States by race/ethnicity from 2000 to 2016. Am J Epidemiol 2021;190:519-27.
67. Pui CH, Evans WE. A 50-year journey to cure childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Semin Hematol 2013;50:185-96.
68. Alvarnas JC, Brown PA, Aoun P, et al. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia, version 2.2015. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2015;13:1240-79.
69. Mohseni M, Uludag H, Brandwein JM. Advances in biology of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and therapeutic implications. Am J Blood Res 2018;8:29-56.
70. Carobolante F, Chiaretti S, Skert C, Bassan R. Practical guidance for the management of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the adolescent and young adult population. Ther Adv Hematol 2020;11:2040620720903531.
71. Cancer Facts & Figures 2020. Available from: https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-statistics/annual-cancer-facts-and-figures/2020/cancer-facts-and-figures-2020.pdf. [Last accessed on 15 Jun 2021].
73. Rytting ME, Thomas DA, O'Brien SM, et al. Augmented Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster therapy in adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). Cancer 2014;120:3660-8.
74. Stock W, Luger SM, Advani AS, et al. Favorable outcomes for older adolescents and young adults (AYA) with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL): early results of U.S. intergroup trial C10403. Blood 2014;124:796.
75. DeAngelo DJ, Stevenson KE, Dahlberg SE, et al. Long-term outcome of a pediatric-inspired regimen used for adults aged 18-50 years with newly diagnosed acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2015;29:526-34.
76. Rytting ME, Jabbour EJ, Jorgensen JL, et al. Final results of a single institution experience with a pediatric-based regimen, the augmented Berlin-Frankfurt-Münster, in adolescents and young adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, and comparison to the hyper-CVAD regimen. Am J Hematol 2016;91:819-23.
77. Sive JI, Buck G, Fielding A, et al. Outcomes in older adults with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL): results from the international MRC UKALL XII/ECOG2993 trial. Br J Haematol 2012;157:463-71.
78. Pulte D, Jansen L, Gondos A, et al. GEKID Cancer Survival Working Group. Survival of adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Germany and the United States. PLoS One 2014;9:e85554.
79. Bailey C, Richardson LC, Allemani C, et al. CONCORD Working Group (US members). Adult leukemia survival trends in the United States by subtype: A population-based registry study of 370,994 patients diagnosed during 1995-2009. Cancer 2018;124:3856-67.
80. Huguet F, Chevret S, Leguay T, et al. Group of Research on Adult ALL (GRAALL). Intensified therapy of acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults: report of the randomized GRAALL-2005 clinical trial. J Clin Oncol 2018;36:2514-23.
81. O'Dwyer KM, Liesveld JL. Philadelphia chromosome negative B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in older adults: Current treatment and novel therapies. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 2017;30:184-92.
82. Luskin MR, Deangelo DJ. Mini-Hyper-CVD combinations for older adults: results of recent trials and a glimpse into the future. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 2020;20:S44-7.
83. Wang L, Bhatia S, Gomez SL, Yasui Y. Differential inequality trends over time in survival among U.S. children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia by race/ethnicity, age at diagnosis, and sex. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2015;24:1781-8.
84. Goggins WB, Lo FF. Racial and ethnic disparities in survival of US children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: evidence from the SEER database 1988-2008. Cancer Causes Control 2012;23:737-43.
85. Kahn JM, Keegan TH, Tao L, Abrahão R, Bleyer A, Viny AD. Racial disparities in the survival of American children, adolescents, and young adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myelogenous leukemia, and Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer 2016;122:2723-30.
86. Kahn JM, Cole PD, Blonquist TM, et al. An investigation of toxicities and survival in Hispanic children and adolescents with ALL: results from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute ALL Consortium protocol 05-001. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2018;65:e26871.
87. Abrahão R, Lichtensztajn DY, Ribeiro RC, et al. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in survival among children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in California, 1988-2011: A population-based observational study. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2015;62:1819-25.
88. Murphy CC, Lupo PJ, Roth ME, Winick NJ, Pruitt SL. Disparities in cancer survival among adolescents and young adults: a population-based study of 88,000 patients. J Natl Cancer Inst ;2021:djab006.
89. Pulte D, Redaniel MT, Jansen L, Brenner H, Jeffreys M. Recent trends in survival of adult patients with acute leukemia: overall improvements, but persistent and partly increasing disparity in survival of patients from minority groups. Haematologica 2013;98:222-9.
90. Quiroz E, Aldoss I, Pullarkat V, Rego E, Marcucci G, Douer D. The emerging story of acute lymphoblastic leukemia among the Latin American population - biological and clinical implications. Blood Rev 2019;33:98-105.
91. Pérez-Saldivar ML, Fajardo-Gutiérrez A, Bernáldez-Ríos R, et al. Childhood acute leukemias are frequent in Mexico City: descriptive epidemiology. BMC Cancer 2011;11:355.
92. Santamaría-Quesada C, Vargas M, Venegas P, et al. Molecular and epidemiologic findings of childhood acute leukemia in Costa Rica. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009;31:131-5.
93. Moore KJ, Hubbard AK, Williams LA, Spector LG. Childhood cancer incidence among specific Asian and Pacific Islander populations in the United States. Int J Cancer 2020;147:3339-48.
94. Shah N, Rockwell B, Kazemi M, et al. Ethnic disparities in survival of adult B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in modern era - a SEER analysis. Leuk Lymphoma 2020;61:3503-6.
95. Chiaretti S, Messina M, Della Starza I, et al. Philadelphia-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia is associated with minimal residual disease persistence and poor outcome. First report of the minimal residual disease-oriented GIMEMA LAL1913. Haematologica 2021;106:1559-68.
96. Roberts KG, Li Y, Payne-Turner D, et al. Targetable kinase-activating lesions in Ph-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia. N Engl J Med 2014;371:1005-15.
97. Herold T, Baldus CD, Gökbuget N. Ph-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia in older adults. N Engl J Med 2014;371:2235.
98. Roberts KG, Gu Z, Payne-Turner D, et al. High frequency and poor outcome of Philadelphia chromosome-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults. J Clin Oncol 2017;35:394-401.
99. Jain N, Roberts KG, Jabbour E, et al. Ph-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a high-risk subtype in adults. Blood 2017;129:572-81.
100. Young RP, Hopkins RJ. A review of the Hispanic paradox: time to spill the beans? Eur Respir Rev 2014;23:439-49.
101. Franzini L, Ribble JC, Keddie AM. Understanding the Hispanic paradox. Ethn Dis 2011;11:496-518.
102. Swan J, Edwards BK. Cancer rates among American Indians and Alaska Natives: is there a national perspective. Cancer 2003;98:1262-72.
103. Nathan PC, Wasilewski-Masker K, Janzen LA. Long-term outcomes in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2009;23:1065-82, vi.
104. Essig S, Li Q, Chen Y, et al. Risk of late effects of treatment in children newly diagnosed with standard-risk acute lymphoblastic leukaemia: a report from the Childhood Cancer Survivor Study cohort. Lancet Oncol 2014;15:841-51.
105. Gofman I, Ducore J. Risk factors for the development of obesity in children surviving ALL and NHL. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2009;31:101-7.
106. Sadighi ZS, Ness KK, Hudson MM, et al. Headache types, related morbidity, and quality of life in survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a prospective cross sectional study. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2014;18:722-9.
107. Shoag JM, Barredo JC, Lossos IS, Pinheiro PS. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia mortality in Hispanic Americans. Leuk Lymphoma 2020;61:2674-81.
108. Eche IJ, Aronowitz T. A literature review of racial disparities in overall survival of black children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia compared with white children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs 2020;37:180-94.
109. Bryant C, Mayhew M, Fleites J, Lozano J, Saunders JM. Comparison of five-year survival rate between black and white children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cureus 2020;12:e11797.
110. Siegel SE, Stock W, Johnson RH, et al. Pediatric-inspired treatment regimens for adolescents and young adults with philadelphia chromosome-negative acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a review. JAMA Oncol 2018;4:725-34.
111. National Cancer Institute. Cancer Stat Facts: leukemia - acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL). Available from: https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/alyl.html. [Last accessed on 15 Jun 2021].
112. Burmeister T, Schwartz S, Bartram CR, Gökbuget N, Hoelzer D, Thiel E. GMALL study group. Patients' age and BCR-ABL frequency in adult B-precursor ALL: a retrospective analysis from the GMALL study group. Blood 2008;112:918-9.
113. Byun JM, Koh Y, Shin DY, et al. Korean Adult ALL Working Party. BCR-ABL translocation as a favorable prognostic factor in elderly patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the era of potent tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Haematologica 2017;102:e187-90.
114. Moorman AV, Chilton L, Wilkinson J, Ensor HM, Bown N, Proctor SJ. A population-based cytogenetic study of adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2010;115:206-14.
115. Paulsson K, Lilljebjörn H, Biloglav A, et al. The genomic landscape of high hyperdiploid childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2015;47:672-6.
116. Geyer MB, Hsu M, Devlin SM, Tallman MS, Douer D, Park JH. Overall survival among older US adults with ALL remains low despite modest improvement since 1980: SEER analysis. Blood 2017;129:1878-81.
117. Bassan R, Bourquin JP, DeAngelo DJ, Chiaretti S. New approaches to the management of adult acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2018:JCO2017773648.
118. Wenzinger C, Williams E, Gru AA. Updates in the pathology of precursor lymphoid neoplasms in the revised fourth edition of the WHO classification of tumors of hematopoietic and lymphoid tissues. Curr Hematol Malig Rep 2018;13:275-88.
119. Iacobucci I, Mullighan CG. Genetic basis of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2017;35:975-83.
120. You MJ, Medeiros LJ, Hsi ED. T-lymphoblastic leukemia/lymphoma. Am J Clin Pathol 2015;144:411-22.
121. Rowe JM, Buck G, Burnett AK, et al. ECOG. Induction therapy for adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: results of more than 1500 patients from the international ALL trial: MRC UKALL XII/ECOG E2993. Blood 2005;106:3760-7.
122. Marks DI, Paietta EM, Moorman AV, et al. T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adults: clinical features, immunophenotype, cytogenetics, and outcome from the large randomized prospective trial (UKALL XII/ECOG 2993). Blood 2009;114:5136-45.
123. Papaemmanuil E, Rapado I, Li Y, et al. RAG-mediated recombination is the predominant driver of oncogenic rearrangement in ETV6-RUNX1 acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2014;46:116-25.
124. Bhojwani D, Pei D, Sandlund JT, et al. ETV6-RUNX1-positive childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: improved outcome with contemporary therapy. Leukemia 2012;26:265-70.
125. Chokkalingam AP, Hsu LI, Metayer C, et al. Genetic variants in ARID5B and CEBPE are childhood ALL susceptibility loci in Hispanics. Cancer Causes Control 2013;24:1789-95.
126. Aldrich MC, Zhang L, Wiemels JL, et al. Cytogenetics of Hispanic and White children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in California. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006;15:578-81.
127. Kurzrock R, Kantarjian HM, Druker BJ, Talpaz M. Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemias: from basic mechanisms to molecular therapeutics. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:819-30.
128. Igwe IJ, Yang D, Merchant A, et al. The presence of Philadelphia chromosome does not confer poor prognosis in adult pre-B acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in the tyrosine kinase inhibitor era - a surveillance, epidemiology, and end results database analysis. Br J Haematol 2017;179:618-26.
129. Uckun FM, Nachman JB, Sather HN, et al. Clinical significance of Philadelphia chromosome positive pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia in the context of contemporary intensive therapies: a report from the Children’s Cancer Group. Cancer 1998;83:2030-9.
130. Sawalha Y, Advani AS. Management of older adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: challenges & current approaches. Int J Hematol Oncol 2018;7:IJH02.
131. Kozlowski P, Lennmyr E, Ahlberg L, et al. Swedish Adult Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Group (SVALL). Age but not Philadelphia positivity impairs outcome in older/elderly patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia in Sweden. Eur J Haematol 2017;99:141-9.
132. Harvey RC, Mullighan CG, Chen IM, et al. Rearrangement of CRLF2 is associated with mutation of JAK kinases, alteration of IKZF1, Hispanic/Latino ethnicity, and a poor outcome in pediatric B-progenitor acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2010;115:5312-21.
133. Yang H, Zhang H, Luan Y, et al. Non-coding germline GATA3 variants alter chromatin topology and contribute to pathogenesis of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Biology 2020; doi: 10.1101/2020.02.23.961672.
134. Herold T, Schneider S, Metzeler KH, et al. Adults with Philadelphia chromosome-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia frequently have IGH-CRLF2 and JAK2 mutations, persistence of minimal residual disease and poor prognosis. Haematologica 2017;102:130-8.
135. Perez-Andreu V, Roberts KG, Xu H, et al. A genome-wide association study of susceptibility to acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adolescents and young adults. Blood 2015;125:680-6.
136. Evans TJ, Milne E, Anderson D, et al. Confirmation of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia variants, ARID5B and IKZF1, and interaction with parental environmental exposures. PLoS One 2014;9:e110255.
137. Walsh KM, Chokkalingam AP, Hsu LI, et al. Associations between genome-wide Native American ancestry, known risk alleles and B-cell ALL risk in Hispanic children. Leukemia 2013;27:2416-9.
138. Walsh KM, de Smith AJ, Chokkalingam AP, et al. GATA3 risk alleles are associated with ancestral components in Hispanic children with ALL. Blood 2013;122:3385-7.
139. Xu H, Cheng C, Devidas M, et al. ARID5B genetic polymorphisms contribute to racial disparities in the incidence and treatment outcome of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:751-7.
140. Wolfe D, Dudek S, Ritchie MD, Pendergrass SA. Visualizing genomic information across chromosomes with PhenoGram. BioData Min 2013;6:18.
141. Buniello A, MacArthur JAL, Cerezo M, et al. The NHGRI-EBI GWAS Catalog of published genome-wide association studies, targeted arrays and summary statistics 2019. Nucleic Acids Res 2019;47:D1005-12.
142. Yang JJ, Landier W, Yang W, et al. Inherited NUDT15 variant is a genetic determinant of mercaptopurine intolerance in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2015;33:1235-42.
143. Diouf B, Crews KR, Lew G, et al. Association of an inherited genetic variant with vincristine-related peripheral neuropathy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. JAMA 2015;313:815-23.
144. Fernandez CA, Smith C, Yang W, et al. Genome-wide analysis links NFATC2 with asparaginase hypersensitivity. Blood 2015;126:69-75.
145. Liu C, Yang W, Devidas M, et al. Clinical and genetic risk factors for acute pancreatitis in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Clin Oncol 2016;34:2133-40.
146. Liu Y, Fernandez CA, Smith C, et al. Genome-wide study links PNPLA3 variant with elevated hepatic transaminase after acute lymphoblastic leukemia therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2017;102:131-40.
147. Højfeldt SG, Wolthers BO, Tulstrup M, et al. Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology Oncology (NOPHO) group. Genetic predisposition to PEG-asparaginase hypersensitivity in children treated according to NOPHO ALL2008. Br J Haematol 2019;184:405-17.
148. Liu C, Yang W, Pei D, et al. Genomewide approach validates thiopurine methyltransferase activity is a monogenic pharmacogenomic trait. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2017;101:373-81.
149. Tulstrup M, Grosjean M, Nielsen SN, et al. NT5C2 germline variants alter thiopurine metabolism and are associated with acquired NT5C2 relapse mutations in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Leukemia 2018;32:2527-35.
150. Yang JJ, Cheng C, Devidas M, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies germline polymorphisms associated with relapse of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2012;120:4197-204.
151. Spear ML, Diaz-Papkovich A, Ziv E, et al. Recent shifts in the genomic ancestry of Mexican Americans may alter the genetic architecture of biomedical traits. Elife 2020;9:e56029.
152. Karol SE, Larsen E, Cheng C, et al. Genetics of ancestry-specific risk for relapse in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2017;31:1325-32.
153. Yang JJ, Cheng C, Devidas M, et al. Ancestry and pharmacogenomics of relapse in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Nat Genet 2011;43:237-41.
154. Zhang H, Liu AP, Devidas M, et al. Association of GATA3 polymorphisms with minimal residual disease and relapse risk in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Natl Cancer Inst 2021;113:408-17.
155. Jain N, Zhang H, Roberts K G, et al. GATA3 rs3824662A allele is overrepresented in adult patients with Ph-like ALL, especially in patients with CRLF2 abnormalities. Blood 2017;130:1430.
156. Moriyama T, Nishii R, Perez-Andreu V, et al. NUDT15 polymorphisms alter thiopurine metabolism and hematopoietic toxicity. Nat Genet 2016;48:367-73.
158. Wiemels J, Cazzaniga G, Daniotti M, et al. Prenatal origin of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children. Lancet 1999;354:1499-503.
159. Greaves MF, Maia AT, Wiemels JL, Ford AM. Leukemia in twins: lessons in natural history. Blood 2003;102:2321-33.
160. Bateman CM, Colman SM, Chaplin T, et al. Acquisition of genome-wide copy number alterations in monozygotic twins with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2010;115:3553-8.
161. Torow N, Hornef MW. The neonatal window of opportunity: setting the stage for life-long host-microbial interaction and immune homeostasis. J Immunol 2017;198:557-63.
162. Olszak T, An D, Zeissig S, et al. Microbial exposure during early life has persistent effects on natural killer T cell function. Science 2012;336:489-93.
163. Biesbroek G, Tsivtsivadze E, Sanders EA, et al. Early respiratory microbiota composition determines bacterial succession patterns and respiratory health in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014;190:1283-92.
164. Urayama KY, Buffler PA, Gallagher ER, Ayoob JM, Ma X. A meta-analysis of the association between day-care attendance and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Int J Epidemiol 2010;39:718-32.
165. Ma X, Buffler PA, Wiemels JL, et al. Ethnic difference in daycare attendance, early infections, and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005;14:1928-34.
166. Urayama KY, Ma X, Selvin S, et al. Early life exposure to infections and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Int J Cancer 2011;128:1632-43.
167. Von Behren J, Spector LG, Mueller BA, et al. Birth order and risk of childhood cancer: a pooled analysis from five US States. Int J Cancer 2011;128:2709-16.
168. Marcotte EL, Ritz B, Cockburn M, Yu F, Heck JE. Exposure to infections and risk of leukemia in young children. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23:1195-203.
169. Marcotte EL, Thomopoulos TP, Infante-rivard C, et al. Caesarean delivery and risk of childhood leukaemia: a pooled analysis from the Childhood Leukemia International Consortium (CLIC). Lancet Haematol 2016;3:e176-85.
170. Francis SS, Wallace AD, Wendt GA, et al. In utero cytomegalovirus infection and development of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2017;129:1680-4.
171. Francis SS, Selvin S, Metayer C, et al. Mode of delivery and risk of childhood leukemia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23:876-81.
172. Wang L, Gomez SL, Yasui Y. Racial and ethnic differences in socioeconomic position and risk of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Epidemiol 2017;185:1263-71.
173. Bona K, Blonquist TM, Neuberg DS, Silverman LB, Wolfe J. Impact of socioeconomic status on timing of relapse and overall survival for children treated on Dana-Farber Cancer Institute ALL Consortium Protocols (2000-2010). Pediatr Blood Cancer 2016;63:1012-8.
174. Acharya S, Hsieh S, Shinohara ET, DeWees T, Frangoul H, Perkins SM. Effects of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status on outcome in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 2016;38:350-4.
175. Kehm RD, Spector LG, Poynter JN, Vock DM, Altekruse SF, Osypuk TL. Does socioeconomic status account for racial and ethnic disparities in childhood cancer survival? Cancer 2018;124:4090-7.
176. Bhatia S, Sather HN, Heerema NA, Trigg ME, Gaynon PS, Robison LL. Racial and ethnic differences in survival of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 2002;100:1957-64.
177. Bhatia S, Landier W, Shangguan M, et al. Nonadherence to oral mercaptopurine and risk of relapse in Hispanic and non-Hispanic white children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a report from the children's oncology group. J Clin Oncol 2012;30:2094-101.
178. Rosenberg AR, Kroon L, Chen L, Li CI, Jones B. Insurance status and risk of cancer mortality among adolescents and young adults. Cancer 2015;121:1279-86.
179. Krakora R, Shih W, Popli P, et al. Impact of insurance status on survival outcomes in adults with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL): a single-center experience. Clin Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk 2020;20:e890-6.
180. Halpern MT, Ward EM, Pavluck AL, Schrag NM, Bian J, Chen AY. Association of insurance status and ethnicity with cancer stage at diagnosis for 12 cancer sites: a retrospective analysis. Lancet Oncol 2008;9:222-31.
181. Butow P, Palmer S, Pai A, Goodenough B, Luckett T, King M. Review of adherence-related issues in adolescents and young adults with cancer. J Clin Oncol 2010;28:4800-9.
182. Schmiegelow K, Heyman M, Gustafsson G, et al. Nordic Society of Paediatric Haematology and Oncology (NOPHO). The degree of myelosuppression during maintenance therapy of adolescents with B-lineage intermediate risk acute lymphoblastic leukemia predicts risk of relapse. Leukemia 2010;24:715-20.
183. Landier W, Hughes CB, Calvillo ER, et al. A grounded theory of the process of adherence to oral chemotherapy in Hispanic and caucasian children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs 2011;28:203-23.
184. Koren G, Ferrazini G, Sulh H, et al. Systemic exposure to mercaptopurine as a prognostic factor in acute lymphocytic leukemia in children. N Engl J Med 1990;323:17-21.
185. Bhatia S, Landier W, Hageman L, et al. 6MP adherence in a multiracial cohort of children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a Children's Oncology Group study. Blood 2014;124:2345-53.
186. Wu YP, Stenehjem DD, Linder LA, et al. Adherence to oral medications during maintenance therapy among children and adolescents with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: a medication refill analysis. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs 2018;35:86-93.
187. Rytting ME, Jabbour EJ, O'Brien SM, Kantarjian HM. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia in adolescents and young adults. Cancer 2017;123:2398-403.
188. Sharib J, Horvai A, Gray Hazard FK, et al. Comparison of Latino and non-Latino patients with Ewing sarcoma. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2014;61:233-7.
189. Pui CH, Sandlund JT, Pei D, et al. Results of therapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia in black and white children. JAMA 2003;290:2001-7.
190. Bleyer A, Tai E, Siegel S. Role of clinical trials in survival progress of American adolescents and young adults with cancer-and lack thereof. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2018;65:e27074.
191. Pulte D, Gondos A, Brenner H. Improvement in survival in younger patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia from the 1980s to the early 21st century. Blood 2009;113:1408-11.
192. Talarico L, Chen G, Pazdur R. Enrollment of elderly patients in clinical trials for cancer drug registration: a 7-year experience by the US Food and Drug Administration. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:4626-31.
193. Parsons HM, Penn DC, Li Q, et al. Increased clinical trial enrollment among adolescent and young adult cancer patients between 2006 and 2012-2013 in the United States. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2019;66:e27426.
194. Hamel LM, Penner LA, Albrecht TL, Heath E, Gwede CK, Eggly S. Barriers to clinical trial enrollment in racial and ethnic minority patients with cancer. Cancer Control 2016;23:327-37.
